The automotive industry is pushing demand for Lithium (Li) ion (Li-ion) batteries to levels where raw materials, for example Cobalt (Co), Li and/or Nickel (Ni), could fail to meet demand. Although the use of recycled battery materials, containing for example Co, Li or Ni, along with impurities/contaminants, has been explored in the past, there exist safety concerns in making new batteries using such materials, such safety concerns being associated with the relative impurity of recycled materials as compared with virgin materials. In addition, the cost of a battery is a large proportion of the cost of an electronic device, such as an electric vehicle or a laptop. Although increasing demand and production efficiency has reduced the cost of batteries, no effective alternative has been found for the Co/Li/Ni used in high-energy Li-ion batteries. Co is widely expected to present a supply problem, as it is a byproduct of Copper (Cu) and Nickel (Ni) mining, with only a small market share mined as Co. However, a reduction in demand for Cu and Ni has suppressed Co production, and using virgin Co is becoming a cost and supply risk issue.